Nargile, also known as hookah or sisha, is a waterpipe used to smoke tobacco which generally has been flavored and sweetened. The tradition of smoking flavoured molasses through waterpipes goes back many centuries. It’s said that they were originally invented in India. At first nargile was a simple structure made with a hollowed out coconut base and a straw. It was later introduced to Persian Kingdom. When the waterpipe arrived in Ottoman lands, it became very popular amongst members of the upper class and intellectuals. It continued to be a symbol of power and wealth for a long time. Smoking with the sultan was considered the highest honor.
The Istanbul Pogrom
We all know that the change of the name from Constantinople to Istanbul in 1930 was significant. Ataturk was showing the West that the newly founded Turkish Republic was different than Ottoman Empire as day and night, while he was trying to arrest his people attention to the fact that it was time to embrace a sense of nationalism in order to build this new Turkish nation-state.
The Istanbul Pogrom of 1955, also known as the Istanbul riots or the September events, was not an unexpected event that came out of nowhere. It is also a mistake to believe in any correlation between the Cyprus issue and the Istanbul Pogrom. If we are going to talk in depth about this topic, we should first mention the Turkification movement which was developed by a group of Ottoman intellectuals who are known as the “Young Turks” and then solidified by Kemalist elites. We need to address these facts if we want to understand truly how Constantinople-Istanbul came to end.
The Young Turks believed that the Ottoman multicultural spirit was outdated and was about to collapse. The solution to them was forming a nation-state by homogenising all economic, political, and ethnic aspects of Turkish society. They pushed the Turkification movement forward because it allowed them to embark on a campaign of ethnic cleaning of minorities. Its implementation started with the Armenian incidents in Anatolia. The population exchanges and Varlık Vergisi (Wealth tax) followed. Right on time the Istanbul Pogrom came about as the fatal blow aimed to create a state of only one colour, one race, one religion, one language. All these policies found justification under the saying of Atatürk, “How happy is the one who says ‘I am Turkish’ (Ne mutlu Türküm diyene).”, which used regularly by the Kemalist elites and clearly illustrates the ideology of Turkification which summarizes the state’s policies toward non-Turk groups.
All the environmental conditions necessary for expelling the last of the remaining minorities from the country were in place by the 1950s. Turkey and Greece had been allies of the United States after the end of World War II. Since Turkey and Greece had joined the same gang, they needed to develop their relationship. To appease big brother U.S.A, Turkey and Greece made a pretty great effort to get along but it didn’t work out. The Greek politician Venizelos published the aspirations that Greece had for Cyprus and the Turks did not reply to this kindly. In the island, the Greek-Cypriot EOKA (an underground nationalist movement) increased tensions as well. Turkish-Cypriots formed an organization to defend themselves against EOKA. Then the fighting began between the two sides. Greece and Turkey made attempts to at least try and find a solution however they couldn’t stop the blood from spilling.
Britain took responsibility and led a conference in London. The aim of the conference was to find a solution to end the fight. However, during the conference the Turks gave into an old habit, decided to play a trick; a pogrom against the Greeks to show the world how Turks felt about Cyprus. Thus, they hoped to gain some sort of advantage over the Greeks during the conference. That is what they thought would happen. What actually happened? They couldn’t control the trick that they were playing and the trick turned into a shameful story.
During the evening of September 5th, Istanbul received the news that Ataturk’s birthplace in Thessaloniki had been targeted in a bomb attack. Indeed, agents from the Turkish Special Warfare Department had thrown a bomb into the house, and blamed this act on the Greeks. Under such intense political tension, what could be a more perfect rallying cry? The news that Greeks had attacked Ataturk’s sacrosanct birthplace was announced by the state radio in the afternoon. Immediately afterwards, the Istanbul Ekspres newspaper printed the breaking news as well. There were 300,000 copies printed. Previously, this newspaper had never produced more than 20-30 thousand copies at once. As expected, all the copies were sold in a very short time.
Naturally people took to the streets to voice their displeasure. Taksim welcomed university students at first. The students were predictable. They protested on their own and left after it got dark. Then, angry mobs who were brought from other cities replaced the students. Some of these people came well-equipped and had lists of names and addresses of Greeks in their hands. The state sponsored assault began with the smashing and looting of Greek shops. This was followed by mobs entering houses by force, assaulting non- Muslim people, and throwing their belongings out into the streets. Unable to stop or calm down, they attacked churches, set some of them fire, harassed the priests, and damaged the holy icons and relics. It may sound exaggerated or ridiculous, but even Greek cemeteries were being desecrated during the riots.
The police remained passive. Closing their eyes and ignoring the marauders was much easier for them. One story I have read said that that the rioters went to the Prince’s Islands in small boats. They talked with the security at the harbour and then began to pirate the islands. They returned back to city without any problem. There are several other unique stories, when after hearing them you’re not sure whether to laugh or cry. During the protests a clever Jewish shopkeeper close to Tünel swapped his Turkish neighbour’s signboard with his own. In the end the Turkish store was looted because the angry crowds thought that the store belonged to a Jew, while the real store received no damage. Another story tells about a desperate Turkish shopkeeper who pulled down his pants to show his circumcision in order to prove that he was Muslim and Turkish.
The riots didn’t end until after the Turkish army arrived in Beyoğlu the next morning. By then, around 15 innocent people were already dead, more than a hundred women had been raped, and almost 70 churches, 20 schools, 4000 Greek-owned businesses, 4000 homes and a few cemeteries had been looted or vandalised. Elsewhere in the city, the crazed crowd had even unabashedly set fire to 52 different quarters such as Arnavutköy, Ortaköy, Karaköy, Eminönü, Sirkeci, Gedikpaşa, Kumkapı and Bakırköy.
A day after the events ended, the Menderes government closed the “Cyprus is Turkish” Association. Its executives were arrested. The Minister of Internal Affairs resigned on the 10th of September. Two days later, the government blamed Turkish Communists for the incident. However, the Menderes government received heavy criticism for its part in the riots.
In the first two weeks following the pogrom, the Greek consulate received numerous request from Greeks of Istanbul to fly to Greece. However, both consulate and Patriarchate tried to stop this wave of migration. They were successful, there was no massive migration of Greeks from Istanbul after the events. On the other hand they were very disappointed by the stance of Turkish state. The only mistake the Greek minority made after the event was ever trusting Turkish state again. It was a big mistake because they were sent to Greece only a few years later. Sadly, Turkish society only recognised the real perpetrators behind the events after the trials in Yassıada.
After the coup d’état in May 1960 which was against the first democratically elected government of the Menderes’ Democrat Party, President Celal Bayar and Prime Minister Adnan Menderes were put on trial by a military court on the island of Yassıada. The junta who had a hand in the 6-7 of September events accused Adnan Menderes and Celal Bayar of violating the constitutionally guaranteed rights of the Greek-Orthodox minority as citizens and for provoking Turkish citizens into demonstration and violence. They were found guilty for many crimes including those which were related to the events of the 6-7 of September. Adnan Menderes was put to death on September 17th in 1961 on İmralı Island. The punishment for Celal Bayar was commuted to aggravated life imprisonment, but he was released in 1964 due to poor health.
Istanbul During the 16th Century
During the 16.century in Ottoman history, Istanbul was divided four districts which were Istanbul proper, Galata, Eyüp and Üsküdar. Each of them developed a distinct urban and social character. Eyüp developed around the tomb of Şeyh Ebu Ensari, companion of the Prophet Muhammed who led the first Muslim siege of Constantinople. Şeyh Ebu Ensari died during the siege. Fatih Sultan Mehmed built Eyüp Mosque, and set up religious school and a kitchen around the tomb. It developed into a major pilgrimage center and burial site for the Ottoman elite and religious dignitaries. The girding of a new sultan took place in Eyüp as well. Another feature of Eyüp was its gardens. Greek, Armenian, Albanian and Bulgarian grocers supplied vegetables and fruits. More, the Beylik farm was located in Eyüp and supplied milk and yogurt for the palace. Rural migrants from Balkans also settled in Eyüp and supplied the city with foodstuff and seasonal workers. The charachter of Eyüp was rural and consequently it became favourite location for summer residences. Kağıthane, was on the road to Eyüp, was a popular spot for Friday picnics. However, its fame was coming from legendary Kağıthane parties and its pavillions. More than 170 pavillions and palaces were built in Kağıthane during the Tulip period. The famous Sa’dabad Palace where the sultan and his Grand vizier held many banquets and festivities, was there too. Kağıthane became synonymous with ruling-class decadence and moral decline according to conservative residents of the city.
Istanbul proper , the old city of Constantinople, was bounded on the west by the Theodosian walls, by sea walls along the Golden Horn, and by the Sea of Marmara on the south. The city walls had twenty-seven gates that opened into several neighborhoods. The district of Istanbul had fifteen subdistricts; each was named after a mosque complex, and each was divided into several quarters. The quarters did not spread beyond the walls, and the population within was dense. Harbors and bays rimmed by fishing villages and wooded orchards dotted the shores of the Bosphorus. The Greek communities lived along the seacoast in Kum Kapı, Samatya, and Fener. The headquarters of the Greek Orthodox patriarchate had been located in Fener since 1601. The Jewish community lived mainly in Balat and Ayvan Saray along the left bank of the Golden Horn. The Armenians and the gypsies lived in Sulu Kule and Samatya.The headquarters of the Armenian patriarchate was in Samatya.The Greek Orthodox and Armenian patriarchs were appointed by the sultan with extensive rights to administer the religious, legal, and cultural affairs of the Greek Orthodox and Armenian communities throughout the empire. The district of Istanbul contained the Topkapı Palace, the Hippodrome, Hagia Sophia, and the Grand Bazaar. The Topkapı Palace complex, the private residence of the Ottoman dynasty and the center of government, stands on the first hill at the eaSaray Burnu. Mehmed II built the palace over parts of the Great Palace of Constantinople. Enclosed by walls and divided into four courts, the Topkapı Palace contained public buildings where government business was conducted. The Topkapı Palace housed more than 6,000 people. The first court of the Topkapı Palace, also called the janissaries’ court, contained military installations. The second court contained the Imperial Council, which functioned as a cabinet and a higher court of appeals. The third court contained the Throne Room, where the sultan received officials, petitioners, and foreign ambassadors. The imperial harem, the tulip garden of Ahmed III, and kiosks were located in the fourth court, the center of the private life of the sultan and his family, which overlooked the Sea of Marmara. The imperial had more than three hundred rooms that housed several hundred female members of the dynasty, Ottoman princes, and their large staff headed by the chief black eunuch. Adjacent to the Topkapı Palace Hagia Sophia and the former Byzantine Hippodrome. The Hippodrome was the ancient ceremonial center and the public square. Under the Ottomans, it was renamed At Meydanı and continued to function as the ceremonial center. Processions, military drills, and public festivals celebrating the birth and circumcision of Ottoman princes and the birth and wedding of princesses took place in the Hippodrome. The janissary barracks and the Et Meydanı (meat square), where janissaries received their meat ration, were located near the Hippodrome. The rebels used the Hippodrome as their base in 1703 and 1730. The commercial hub of the city was located very close to the Hippodrome and the Topkapı Palace. The Divan Yolu (via ignatia) branched out in several directions from the Hippodrome and connected the area to the mercantile center of the city, the Grand Bazaar and its surrounding residential and commercial districts on the one side as well as the Egyptian Market and the port on the other side on the Golden Horn. The distribution of foodstuff and raw materials took place in the port area on the Golden Horn, where ships from all over the empire and the Mediterranean ports anchored. The Un Kapanı and Yemiş iskelesı distributed flour to bakers at government-set prices and fruits citywide. In the marketplace various religious communities mingled together, carried out business, and belonged to the same guilds. As would be expected, this area also became a center of crime due to its commercial wealth and social diversity. The district of Istanbul was under stricter government control than the rest of city because the Topkapı Palace, the main residence of the sultan and his family, was located here. The administration of the city was under the grand vizier and his retinue of janissaries, the chief kadi (Islamic judge) of Istanbul, the chief inspector of markets, the chief of night police, the chief of day police, the agha (commander) of janissaries in Istanbul, and the head of the palace guards.
Galata and Pera, on the opposite side of the Golden Horn from the district of Istanbul, were the hub of Western European trade and the center of diplomacy, finance, entertainment, and European residence in the early modern period. The walled town of Galata was a former Genoese colony, part of the Italian trading settlement on the Black Sea during Byzantine times. Galata had gained full autonomy because of its alliance with the Byzantine Empire against Venice during the restoration of Byzantine rule in 1261. It also had lent financial and military support to Byzantine forces during the Ottoman siege of March–April 1453. Some merchants had collaborated with the Ottoman army and handed the keys of the city to Mehmed II two days after the fall of Constantinople. Because of its timely surrender, Galata survived as a distinct city within a city under the Ottomans. The Ottoman sultan had rewarded the colony by granting capitulations to Genoa and partial autonomy to the town. The treaty provided the Genoese colony with religious and commercial freedom, security, and protection of property as well as exemption from extraordinary taxes, forced labor, and residents’ service in the army. The colony also received the right to elect freely a person to represent its interests before the sultan. In return, the residents had to agree not to build new churches or ring their bells too loudly. These privileges were later granted to other Italian city-states and western European nations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Mehmed II divided the community in Galata into two groups, the non- Muslim Ottoman subjects who paid the poll tax and the subjects of Genoa who resided temporarily in Galata for commerce. The first group of non-Muslim subjects included Greeks, Jews, Armenians, and some Genoese. The second group, defined as protected non-Ottoman merchants, received the freedom to trade in return for payment of customs dues. Both groups enjoyed distinct legal and religious autonomy. To establish Ottoman control over Galata, Mehmed II razed some of the land walls and kept the sea wall intact. However, the walls were restored by his son Sultan Bayezid II. The Galata tower functioned as a fire-watch facility, a prison for indebted merchants and slaves, and a storage place. Galata was divided into three wards separated by inner walls that still stood in the seventeenth century. Its sea walls and inner walls had eleven outer gates and six inner gates opening into different neighborhoods. Galata inside the walls was a densely populated subdistrict with 200,000 non-Muslim and 64,000 Muslim residents. In the fifteenth century, Galata had eleven Catholic and nine Greek Orthodox and Armenian churches and only two mosques. However, the number of mosques had increased to twelve inside and around the walls of Galata by the sixteenth century. There were also two Mevlevi lodges in Galata and Beşiktaş that housed the Mevlevi Sufis. In the eighteenth century, as more non-Muslims settled in the district of Galata, the number of Greek churches in the district of Galata rose to forty despite an earlier ban on church construction. Additionally, Western European nations were again able to restore and build new Catholic churches according to the Treaty of Carlowitz and as their commercial presence grew after 1699. France, and Great Britain negotiated commercial treaties that granted them extraterritorial rights, freedom of trade, lower customs duties, and legal immunity. France succeeded Venice as an exporter of silk textiles and other luxury goods. Capitulations granted to France in 1740 also protected the Catholic community and led to an increase in French missionary activity in the eighteenth century. The number of French residents increased from 40 in 1682 to 175 in 1719. The growing French community resided in the neighborhood of Bereketzade. European embassies moved to the vineyards of Pera to the north of Galata in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Their palaces had a large staff and retinue that employed many people. The French embassy even contained a church, a law-court, a printing press, and a prison. The British embassy built summer residences in villages along the Bosphorus in Büyükdere and Tarabya. Galata became an important commercial and financial center where many wealthy Armenian and Jewish merchants operated as agents for the European nations and as bankers for members of the ruling class, including tax farmers and janissaries. European goods cleared through the marina of Galata, where ports, warehouses, shops, custom houses and workshops were located on the waterfront in Karaköy, Mumhane, and the Azap Kapı. Galata had a covered market with twelve domes, 3,080 shops, twelve major houses of commerce, hans, and a wheat depot that belonged to Greeks and Franks. The arsenal and shipyard in Kasım Paşa and the gunpowder factory and cannon foundry in Tophane were the military-industrial sector of Istanbul and employed many workers and galley slaves. Galata inside the walls also contained the red-light district of Istanbul, with many brothels and taverns along the harbor catering to sailors, merchants, janissaries, and a large number of single and working-class men who resided in bachelors’ rooms. Evliya Çelebi , the well-known Ottoman traveler and resident of Istanbul, counted two hundred houses of ill repute and taverns along the seashore walls in the mid-seventeenth century; these were operated by Greeks and Jews, each serving a clientele of five hundred to six hundred Muslims and non-Muslims in the middle of the seventeenth century. Serving alcoholic drinks to Muslims was forbidden by the shari’a, but many Muslim visitors took respite from the watchful gaze of neighbors and local officials when they frequented the many taverns and brothels in the winding alleys of Galata and along the harbor of Kasım Paşa. Galata was the most crime-ridden area of the city, requiring greater policing. Mehmed II appointed a chief kadi, subaşı (police chief), and voyvoda (mayor) to oversee the affairs of residents. The chief kadi of Galata was the most important official and reported directly to the sultan. His deputies held court in the subdistricts and worked closely with the heads of non-Muslim communities. The voyvoda was appointed by the sultan, functioned like the mayor, and worked with the chiefs of day and night police.The market inspector controlled weights and scales and supervised prices. The agha of janissaries held law and order particularly in red-light district, where brawls occurred frequently. The non-Muslim and European communities had their own officials and representatives who worked with the kadi and police officials to maintain law and order. The population of Galata inside the walls dispersed as time went on to the villages on the European shore of the Bosphorus like Beşiktaş, Ortaköy, and Bebek that were mixed in ethnic and social make up. All these villages were ethnically, religiously, and socially mixed. Beşiktaş had, in addition to a Muslim majority, one Greek and one Jewish quarter, six thousand summer houses, and many gardens belonging to notables and grandees. The sultan and members of his household, particularly the princesses, constructed palaces and mansions along both shores of the Bosphorus, visible symbols of conspicuous consumption. The Çırağan Palace, built by Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha, and the Dolmabahçe palace as well as Yıldız Palace were located in Beşiktaş. Ortaköy was inhabited predominantly by Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The palace of Hadice Sultan, daughter of Mustafa III, in the Defterdar neighborhood is the mostfamous. Ottoman princesses Beyhan Sultan and Esma Sultan the elder also owned palaces in Ortaköy and Bebek.
On the Asian side of the Bosphorus, the district of Üsküdar was a smaller settlement of five subdistricts known for its cypress groves, peaceful villages, cemeteries, and carved tombstones. Üsküdar was a well-populated district with seventy Muslim quarters, eleven Greek Orthodox and Armenian quarters, and one Jewish quarter during the seventeenth century. The villages of Kadıköy, Istavros, Beylerbeyi, and Kuzguncuk on the same side of the Bosphorus had populations of Muslims, Greeks, and Jews and contained the mansions and gardens of grandees. Üsküdar also contained mosque complexes endowed by royals. The great mosque complex called the Atik Valide Cami was built by the great architect Sinan for Nur Banu Sultan, mother of Murad III, in 1583. It was composed of a mosque, medrese, hospice, bath, and guesthouse. The Yeni Valide mosque complex of queen mother Gülnüş Sultan, which was built between 1700 and 1710, included a public fountain was also located close to the shore of Üsküdar. Sultan Selim III built a mosque and the modern Selimiyye barracks in 1800 to house the new troops. Üsküdar never developed into an international port but did become an indispensable entrepôt of Asian goods on their way to Istanbul and Galata. Its primary trade was with Iran, many of whose merchants carried on a caravan trade in silk and other commodities and resided in the hans of Üsküdar. The Iranian envoys lived in Üsküdar and, like European envoys, were not allowed to reside in the district of Istanbul. Great caravans of pilgrims encamped in Üsküdar for several weeks prior to their march to Mecca every year. Moreover, it was a place of banishment for Ottoman officials who fell from favor. The administration of Üsküdar was in the hands of the kadi and his five deputy judges, a subaşı, and a division of the janissary corps. Its population did not increase at the same rate as that of the districts of Istanbul and Galata because its population flow was in the direction of trade, industry, and government activities.
Byzantium to Constantinople
It’s known that there has been a human presence in Istanbul since the Neolithic period, but when it comes to urbanization Chalcedon was the first settlement in the area known today as Istanbul. Byzantium, the origins of Istanbul, was founded later by the ruler of Megara, King Byzas.
One Helenestic myth about King Byzas’ foundation of Byzantium says that Zeus felt in love with Io who was the beautiful daughter of Inakhos. Zeus was very afraid of Hera, his jealous wife, and he transformed the girl into a heifer in order to protect her from Hera’s wrath. Hera found out about the transformation of Io and sent a monster to kill her, but Zeus sent Hermes to stop it. Then, Hera sent a horsefly to torment Io and she always had to keep on moving to escape it. While Io was passing through a valley, it was suddenly filled with water and the Bosphorus was formed. Every time the horse fly bit Io, she shook her head and shaped the land with her horns. One of the other valley was also filled with water and formed the Golden Horn. Later, Io gave a birth to a girl, a daughter of Zeus, and named her Keroessa. She later made love to Poseidon, god of the sea, and they had baby named Byzas, later to be the founder and king of Byzantion.
Byzas was king of Megara, an ancient port city located in the Attic peninsula, and home of the current capital of Greece, Athens. The Megarans used their port for the wool trade and enjoyed a wealthy life from it. Later, they used their riches to build ships and sailed out to colonize other lands. They colonized Sicily, to the north of Syracuse and the Asian shores of the Bosphorus.
The founding story of Byzantium dates back to the colonists lead by Byzas who left Megara to find a place to settle. The legend says that Byzas consulted the Oracle of Delphi to ask where he should establish his new city. The oracle advised him to go out and raise a settlement opposite the land of the blind, on the other side of the water. He didn’t understand what this really meant at that time. When they came upon Sarayburnu, they saw Chalcedon on the other side of the water, and they all were very suprised by how beautiful the area was. Then, Byzas remembered the words of the Oracle. Byzas thought that the colonists in Chalcedon had to be blind that they hadn’t seen this much nicer land across the water. He founded his new city there on the European coast and named it Byzantion after himself.
Byzantium paid a price for the continued war between the Greeks and Persians and later between the Greeks and the Spartans. It gained its independence back when Alexander the Great conquered Persia. After becoming an ally of the Roman Empire, Byzantium became very Romanized in many ways. The relationship between Rome and Byzantium was ended by Septimus Severus. He destroyed most of the city and massacred its residents because Byzantium had supported his rival. He would later regret his actions and decided to rebuild it. It might have been part of his unspoken apology to the city when he built the Hippodrome where theatrical plays and gladiator fights entertained the masses.
Constantine is credited with directing the histroy of the world towards a new course. He made Christianity the religion of the state and converted Byzantium into a new Christian capital. Constantine was very enigmatic, interested in reform, ambitious and ruthless. He was torn between Paganism and Christianity. It’s said that he was converted to Christianity after witnessing a miracle. He later acquired such a great knowledge of Christianity that he was able to discuss religion with Christian cardinals. Some historians have portrayed him as a pious man whereas others claim that he used ‘faith’ to his political advantage. The truth may lie somewhere in between but he passed into history as the first Christian emperor of Rome and the founder of Constantinople.
Constantine was the son of Helena. His father, Constantius, met with her in Drepanon, a small town in what is the İzmit province of today. Constantius was pagan and Helena was Christian when they met each other. Although his wife had a great effect on him, Constantius still preferred to follow his Pagan practises. Constantine later married with Theodora. After the death of his father, Constantine defeated Maxentius on the western side of the empire and became the sole ruler of the west. He then boldly entered Rome holding a Christian banner which was very surprising.
Constantine was nourished with Christian mysticism during his life in Rome but he was not a happy man. His desires were elsewhere in the eastern part of the empire which was being ruled by his rival Licinius at that time. Constantine set his mind on attacking Licinius. He announced his plan in Rome during a ceremony by saying that there would be “one empire, one god and one emperor.” The message reached Licinius in a very short time.
Constantine spent his time planning his attack on Licinius. He studied his plans well and organized his army. He couldn’t wait for long though. He took his army to find Licinius. When they met on the battlefield, both sides suffered heavy losses so they decided to settle and agree on peace. Constantine became emperor of all the eastern part of Europe and Balkans. He had gained more power but it did not satisfy his desires. He wanted to be the only ruler, not one of two.
Constantine attacked Licinius once more. He defeated his rival. Licinius organized the last of his troops, and took them to seek refuge in Byzantium. Constantine didn’t want to leave his work unfinished so he followed his rival and found him in Uskudar. It’s said that 30,000 soldiers died in Uskudar during the battle that followed. Constantine finally conquered Byzantium and found himself as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
The major change Constantine the Great made was the creation of a new imperial capital, New Rome. Constantine was aware of the strategic and commercial advantages of Byzantium, as it was situated on the border of Asia and Europe and close to the main sources of the glories of many ancient cultures. He decided to transform Byzantinium into his new capital. A massive reconstruction programme began. When it finished, the alternative capital of the Roman Empire emerged. He called his city Neva Rome but the residents insisted on calling it Constantinople.
He built new imperial residence, The Great Palace of Constantinople, located in south-east of the old peninsula between Hagia Sophia and the Hippodrome. The emperor built the Valens Aqueduct the Cistern of Philoxenos, the Basilica Cistern and the Theodosius Cistern in order to supply the city with water. He built Hagia Irene as a symbol of the Christian city. He built roads and extended the citywalls. Constantinople took its shape as a unique Roman city where the Greek language was spoken and was under a strong Christian influence. Constantine the Great, the main founder, left behind a rising city which was big, strong and wealthy while its rival, Rome, found itself falling from power.
The Fourth Crusade
After Ayyubid Sultan Saladin shocked and dismayed the Catholic countries of Western Europe by capturing Jerusalem, knights in a wave of mass emotion began to weep for the Holy Land that was now held captive. The powerful French barons sent envoys to Venice, the leading seafaring city, to arrange transportation for the crusading army. Enrico Dandalo, the elected Duka of Venice, welcomed them kindly. He agreed to produce a fleet for the crusaders which was supposed to amount to 33,000 soldiers, moreover, provide forces and war galleys. The passage costs would be collected from the crusaders when they arrived to Venice the following year. They also decided to strike Eygpt, the heart of Muslim power and Venice’s business partner, in order to weaken the Muslims and then attack Jerusalem to win it back.
When the crusaders began to appear in Venice in 1202, Pope Innocent III and the barons were very disapponted. It was clear that the French envoys had miscalculated the number of recruits. There were only 12,000 soldiers whereas they had expected around 33,000 soldiers. The leading barons paid more but it was still not enough for Venice. Enrico Dandalo was very upset because the mistake threatened to plunge Venice into a great financial crisis.
The Fourth crusade seemed at the point of collapse. Enrico Dandalo decided to take advantage of the situation. He offered another proposal which pious crusaders called the devil’s bargain. Enrico Dandalo agreed to allow the fleet to sail without full payment, but in return the army of crusaders must also conquer Zara which at the time was rebelling aganist Venice and was under the protection of the King of Hungary. The barons, seeing no other option, agreed to this deal with the devil.
The crusaders set sail to Zara despite the threat of papal excommunication. They attacked and conquered it after two weeks under siege. The crusaders set up for winter in Zara instead of leaving for their intended destination. The leaders of Fourth Crusade met with Prince Alexius Angelus who claimed to be the rightful emperor of the Byzantine Empire in Zara. Alexius Angelus promised them a large amount of money and offered the Byzantine army to join in the crusade if he were placed on the throne. The offer was happily accepted. The leaders of the crusade decided to topple current emperor Alexius III and replaced him with Alexius Angelus.
The crusaders set out from Zara in the the spring to head to Constantinople. They landed on the Asian side of the Bosphorus in June. Enrico Dandalo didn’t want to fight at first. The leaders of the crusade tried to trigger a popular rising in Alexius Angelus’s favor. When they saw that there would never be a popular rising aganist Alexius III, they settled down to take the serious matter into their own hands.
The crusaders crossed the Bosphorus on the 5th of June. Emperor Alexius III led a large army out to confront the incoming invaders. The crusaders, covered by the firing of crossbows and archers, ran onto the beach.The Byzantines retreated when they saw French knights before them. The crusaders attacked Galata Tower but the Byzantines fought very hard. The Venetian fleet rowed into the harbor. The Byzantines only lost the unwalled suburbs of Pera at the end of the fight. Neither the crusaders were succesful in conquering the city nor were Byzantines able to force the crusaders away.
The second attack began on the 17th of June. Venetians attacked the harbor walls. They set fire to nearby buildings. The fire was spread by the wind and much of the city burned down. Although Byzantines defeated the French knights on land and succeed to defend the city aganist the Venetian fleet, Alexius III lost his nerve and fled from the city during the night. The defenders were left leaderless. Alexius Angelus entered the city and succeeded to the throne with the crusaders’ blessing.
By the time Alexius had been crowned, it was too late in the season to continue the crusade. Instead they were forced to wait until the spring to set sail for Egypt. Understandably, the crusaders were eager to recieve what Alexius Angelus had promised them. Unfortunately the young emperor was not able to keep his promises because the imperial treasury was empty. First, he raised taxes in order to collect enough money to satisfy the crusaders but the attempt failed. Out of desperation priceless pieces of art made from bronze were melted down. His subjects quickly realized that their emperor was weak which sparked riots throughout the city. One of the riots caused a second disastrous fire. The fire left many homeless and much of the city was destroyed again.
Alexius Angelus was stuck. He couldn’t collect enough money to satisfy the crusaders, nor could he force them out. He took misleading advice from his adviser, Ducas, who lured Alexius into a trap and imprisoned him. Ducas took the throne for himself. The new emperor prepared his city for the battle. He crossed a line and launched a fireship attack on the Venetian fleet. It’s said that no one has ever defended themselves as well as the Venetians did that night.
Enrico Dandalo wanted to give Ducas a brutal response to his attack. The Venetian fleet moved aganist the harbor walls. The attempt went very badly for the crusaders. Emperor Ducas was commander and organized everything by himself. When the crusader army retreated, he told his soldiers that he was a real man and the real king, and that he would destroy all the enemies of Constantinople. Dukas won trust of all the Byzantines that day.
The crusaders were unhappy about their repeated failures. Enrico Dandalo earned a position of leadership after their last attempt had ended badly. Enrico Dandalo organized the army and attacked Constantinople for one last time. The Byzantine defenders were routed and Dukas fled from the city. Constantinople was punished for three days by the crusaders. Constantinople’s beautiful legendary buildings were attacked and vandalized. The crusaders stole the best of the fallen city’s treasure and looted Hagia Sophia. They targeted the civilian population too. They raped women, killed innocent people as they liked and stole anything the residents had left.
The city was ruled by the crusaders for more than fifty years until it was retaken by Byzantine emperor Michael Paleologus. The crusaders left the city devastated, neglected and dejected. Neither Constantinople nor the Byzantine Empire ever recovered. The empire was finally extinguished by the Turks in 1453 with fall of Constantinople.
The Nika Revolt
In Constantinople, chariot races were the most popular source of entertainment. The teams raced with four horses, and each team had its own color that was worn by the horses. Originally there were blue, white, red and green teams but red and white gradually lost their popularity and were absorbed into the green and blue teams. In those times each team was supported by different associations which were similar to today’s political parties. They took positions on topics of debate and when the time was right they hoped to be claimants to the throne.
East meets West and New meets Old
Istanbul is a study in contrasts. Within moments of arriving, you’re assaulted by the hustle and bustle of the city that washes overs you like the heat of a glass of çay, Turkish tea. As you approach the city you begin to see how the old aqueducts form the gates through which the traffic, and there’s always traffic, enters the city. It’s moments such as this where you see Istanbul’s challenge. It is a city with so much history that is charging forward into the future. In fact, you’ll most likely see more high rises and fancy cars then you would at home. But don’t let this distract you from sampling the amazing Turkish cuisine prepared by local vendors or small kebab shops.
It’s Istanbul’s particular brand of hustle that makes this city so amazing. Everyone is trying to secure their share of the economic boom Turkey has been experiencing and they work for it. You’ll see all manners of street vendors hawking their wares. Walk up and pick something up, but be prepared to use the Turkish word for “thank you” (Phonetically: Teshekoorler) if you want to get away without buying the shop. Seriously, as my mom will attest, this word is a lifesaver. It can extricate you from any hassling or entreaties to dine, buy, marry, or what-have-you. Teşekkürler: Learn it, use it, and love it!
Don’t think you’ll be able to experience Istanbul in two or three days. This is a city where you could spend days just walking the streets and taking in the lively atmosphere. Be sure to give yourself a couple days to see all of the sites in the Old City, another day to spend at a hammam, a Turkish bath where you’ll be soaped, scrubbed, and then forcefully contorted by a man hairier than your uncle John (But trust me, you’ll walk out of there feeling blissful), and enough nights to sample several different local cuisines and the wonderful night life of Taksim.
If you’re willing to spend more time in the city and outside of it, there are a plethora of spots that most tourists might not find. For example, sit along the banks of the Bosporus at the best little shisha and tea spot on the Asian side. First, you travel by ferry to Üsküdar, then and walk south along the bank of the Bosporus until you see the Maiden’s Tower Island. When you come upon a long set of concrete steps covered in cushions and men carrying trays of tea along them you’ll know you’ve found the right spot. I suggest enjoying the sunset at this place as it lights up the city across the strait in a most wonderful way.
When you get to Istanbul be prepared for a cultural experience. If you can walk away from this city without having been awed by a view or having haggled with a vendor, then perhaps you should extend your trip. Learn to love the çay, because it comes after every meal, and in between most hours of the day. If you get lost, just ask someone. I’ve had experiences where people have called their friends who could speak English and translate for us over the phone. The Turkish people will go out of their way to make your experience in Turkey a wonderful one, and if you’re like me, you’ll know that you want to go back even though you’ve just arrived.
Teşekkürler!
Author: Evan Waksler
Go Visiting Istanbul!
2 September 2012: We left for what has been the best experience of our life in this amazing city. We had the chance to be Erasmus for one year at the University of Marmara in Istanbul. At first, we didn’t know what to expect of Istanbul and Turkish people. We discovered an amazing and surprising city and a population so warm, helpful and which takes time to live. Istanbul is a charming cosmopolitan city between tradition and modernity, you can just fall in love with it. We really enjoyed every moments and wished it never ended. We knew that an experience like this just happen once in a lifetime so we decided to keep all of this memories by recording different moments as many time as we could. Enjoy our video and don’t hesitate one second, go visiting Istanbul!
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Authors: Jordane Keck & Claire Ozveren, from France
Turkish Pop
Turkish pop music began to take shape early towards the end of 1950s when Turkey was closely acquainted with other western genres. French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese pop songs were listened to by urban public in the beginning. Then, college youths went after rock’n roll while it was sweeping over the world. Turkish musicians performed only covers of popular western songs. Then, famous musicians such as Erol Büyükburç began to compose original songs. “Little Lucy”, both composed and written by Erol Büyükburç, was the first example of the genre.
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Erol Büyükburç – “Little Lucy” (1961)
Starting in the 1960s, Turkish pop music began to evolve. Fecri Ebcioğlu, who was a Radio Istanbul dj, laid the foundation of “Aranjman” music. “Aranjman” music were that the lyrics of western pop songs translated into Turkish and sung by Turkish artists. That was a new era in pop music. “Bir Varmış Bir Yokmuş” (Look, once upon a time) by İlham Gencer was the first example of the Aranjman music. The lyrics of the songs were written by Fecri Ebcioğlu. Following the 1960 Military Coup, an interest in folk culture increased in the urban society. That tendency of folk music showed itself on popular music too. The genre got its name in 1964 together with “Burçak Tarlası” (Field of vetch) by Tülay German. That song opened a new trend, the popular western songs were arranged into more oriental sounding motifs, which would later become “Anadolu-pop” (Anatolia pop). A year later, Tülay German performed “Yarının Şarkısı” (Tomorrow’s Song) in folk-pop composition and the song was used as the election song of the labour party. While many developments were happening, Timur Selçuk broke new ground. He wrote in Turkish, and moreover he composed his own song. “Ayrılanlar İçin” (For those departed) passed into history as the first original composition of pop music. “Ayrılanlar İçin” went down big and became the most popular in the year when it was released.
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Tülay German – “Burçak Tarlası” (1962)
Golden Microphone Music Competition sponsored by the Hürriyet newspaper and Inter-High School Music Contest sponsored by the Milliyet newspaper were a milestone in the history of Turkish pop music. The contests became the springboard for the rise of new bands. The contests allowed people not living in the urban areas to be exposed to pop music, which in turn inspired many young musicians to create highly original songs. Cem Karaca, Erol Evgin, Fikret Kızılok, İlham Gencer, Cahit Oben, Rana Alagöz, and Erkin Koray claimed their fame through these contests. “Çayır Çimen Geze” by Mavi Işıklar, “Lorke Lorke” by Siluetler, “Bahçelere Geldi Bahar” by Selçuk Alagöz, “Develi Yaylar” by Mavi Çocuklar, “Emrah” by Cem Karaca ve Apaşlar and “Konya Kabağı” by Rana Alagöz were some songs which won the public’s affection. During the same period, European singers recorded popular Turkish songs. Juanito was the most prominent of them. He came to İzmir for 2 weeks along with the Los Alcorson orchestra but he didn’t go back to Spain with them. He started to speak Turkish in a short time and then began to record Turkish songs. The song named “Arkadaşımın Aşkısın”, covered originally from “La Femme de Mon Ami”, had a special place in Turkish heart. Another pleasant song was “Kime Derler Sana Derler” (To whom they tell, to you they tell) which was written by Sezer Cumhur Önal and sung by Sacha Distel. Italian multi-talented musician Patricia Carli came to Turkey a few times for concerts while she was in Turkey, she recorded a few Turkish songs. The song named “Mektup” (The letter) was in tune along with her beautiful voice.
Starting in the 1970s, Turkish pop music began to take off. The number of pop singers increased, meanwhile the pop music began to take serious steps towards becoming a real industry. The first music labels were founded in the beginning of the 70s. Another important development came along with Toplu İğne Composition Contest which was broadcasted live on the TRT channel. The contest launched many talented musicians, and their original compositions. Consequently, “Aranjman” genre faded away. The contest was also a kind of try out for Eurovision. Turkey joined Eurovision for the first time in 1975, bringing up the rear. The only country which deemed Turkish song worthy of points was Monaco and it was only 3 points. After the mid-1970s, political movements gained momentum, and it influenced pop music as it did to everything else. A group of musicians performed only songs which had political messages. Selda Bağcan, Edip Akbayram, Zülfü Livaneli, Melike Demirağ pioneered the genre.
Erol Evgin, who has tried to gain a footing on pop music since the late years of the 60s, began to work with composer Melih Kibar and songwriter Çiğdem Talu in 1976. They were very productive and within a decade released many pleasant songs. Erol Büyükburç, loved musician of the 60’s, maintained his course during 1970s. He performed many songs, but “Manolya”, “Bir Başka Sevgiliyi Sevemem” and “Hop Dedik” were notable songs of his from the 1970s. Alpay, who experimented with a number of styles from romantic folk to rock, made himself unforgettable along with the songs named “Fabrika Kızı” and “Eylül’de Gel” which he performed in the 70s. If the topic is pop music of the 70s, it’s impossible to pass over Bülent Ortaçgil and his album “Benimle Oynar Mısın” (Would you dance with me) which is considered one of the foremost works of Turkish pop music. Nükhet Duru, Nilüfer and Sezen Aksu hit the big time within a decade. Nilüfer performed her first song in 1972, and she won the “Altın Plak” (Golden record award) with “Dünya Dönüyor” in 1973. The same award was won by Nükhet Duru with “Beni Benimle Bırak” in 1975. Sezen Aksu released her first record in 1975. She was due for her third record “Seni Gidi Vurdumduymaz” for her fame. After she acted in part of the movie named “Minik Serçe” in 1979, she started to be called minik serçe which means tiny sparrow.
On 12 September 1980, tanks started to appear on the streets while the Turkish public were asleep. When they woke up they were under control of a junta led by General Kenan Evren. The democracy of Turkey was stopped once again. The junta restricted all freedoms including music. The junta regime also forbade Zeki Müren and Bülent Ersoy, who were Turkish classic music artists, to take the stage. After the junta regime, Turgut Özal was president and he implemented a vast liberal economic programme. The liberal economy gave rise to industrialisation which caused a huge migrant wave from rural to cities. The rural migrants established shantytowns all over Istanbul and went on their lives in the urban centres. Later, the shantytowns became the birthplace of the arabesque culture which dominated 80s. Although arabesque music took its place in pop music during the 1980s, many upscale works were produced. “Zaman Zaman” by Fikret Kızılok, “Sultan-ı Yegah” by Ergüder-Nur Yoldaş were ranking albums. All the songs of albums were smash hits. MFO’s “Ele Güne Karşı Yapayalnız” was the foremost album of the decade. Sezen Aksu released “Sen Ağlama” which was rich in arabesque tunes. Yeni Türkü, Ezginin Günlüğü and Grup Yorum were formed within a decade, and they became much loved in the 80s, especially among the university and urban youth. Yeni Türkü, who released three pleasant albums within a decade, became one of the most talked-about bands in the 80s. Ezginin Günlüğü brought Turkish folk music and western classical music traditions into their pop style. The group took off with their first album “Seni Düşünmek” in 1985. Grup Yorum, mostly known for political song writing, gained great popularity in the recent years of 1980s.
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Yeni Türkü – “Olmasa Mektubun” (1987)
Starting in the 90s, Turkish pop music had second heyday, and entered into the consciousness of large sections of pop society. The appearance of makam music within pop music served to gain the attention. Sezen Aksu and her backup singers, which were to become a school in themselves, dominated the decade. Yıldız Tilbe, Sertap Erener, Emre Altuğ, Işın Karaca, Aşkın Nur Yengi, Hande Yener and Zeynep Casalini were from that school. They were always consistent and successful while many singers appeared and faded away this period. Aşkın Nur Yengi was the first successful pop singer of the 90s. Her first album “Sevgiliye” sold over 2 million copies and eleven more albums followed it. Yıldız Tilbe released her first album in 1994 and later all her albums received significant airplay and sold well in Turkey. Sertap Erener is definitely one of the most successful female Turkish pop singers. She released her first album in 1992, and many upscale works followed it. She’s mostly known for winning the Eurovision Song Contest in 2003. Sertab Erener formed a band with Demir Demirkan in 2009 and goes on her music career. Sezen Aksu is definitely the queen of Turkish pop. Her influence on Turkish pop is not a secret. She is resounding icon and a superstar. Her works in 90s were epochal. Her first album in the 90s was “Gülümse” introduced the modern dance sound to Turkish pop music. Her work with Tarkan resulted in a continental hits like “Şımarık” and “Şıkıdım” and her collaboration with Goran Bregovic resulted magnificent album “The Wedding and the Funeral” which enabled her to increase her fan-base across the globe.
Yonca Evcimik was one of the pioneers of the 90s in Turkish pop music. Her first album “Abone”, released in 1991, made record sales for its day. Many upscale singles and albums followed it. The “dance” and new rhythm of consumption was in Evcimik’s music. Her work with a music label from the Netherlands resulted in house music hits such as “I’m Hot For You” which topped the charts in 1995. Once, Sezen Aksu praised Yonca Evcimik, saying that “If Evcimik had opportunities as much as Madonna, she definitely would be better”.
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Yonca Evcimik – “Abone” (1991)
Tarkan is greatest mega-star to emerge during the 90s. He opened the music market in Turkey for a new music style that had not been played in Turkey before. His music is a mixture of east and west styles with pop music. . His second album was made in 1994 “Acayipsin” (You are sensational) and sold more than 2 million copies in Turkey and 700 thousand copies in Europe, a first for a Turkish singer. In 1997, after having a break of 3 years, Tarkan returned with the album “Ölürüm Sana” (I die for you) he also sang an international tour in which people maxed out a stadium in London, the Bataclan in Paris and the Arena in Berlin. When the album was released he reached third place in France and number one in Belgium and Germany. His fourth album was released in 1999 and it was called “Tarkan”. It contains a collection of his best music. This album was designed to conquer international markets such as Europe, Asia, the United States and Latin America.
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Tarkan – “Ölürüm Sana” (1997)
Ahmet Kaya gained his popularity with his political stance in the late 80s, and maintained his style in the 1990s despite all the following political developments, have moved that affected the wide public. Ahmet Kaya came from Kurdish ethnicity. All his albums were known for its protest music. He was forced to emigrate because of the persecution he experienced, he died in Paris. During the televised annual music awards ceremony at which he was to be named Musician of the Year, Ahmet Kaya spoke out about his Kurdish background and said that he wanted to produce music in his native language. He announced that he had recorded a song in Kurdish and intended to produce a video to accompany it. Serdar Ortaç, who years later apologized for his behaviour, led the crowd stated singing Turkish national anthem. This was an incident which led to a prosecution case which made him leave Turkey. He moved to Paris and died from a heart attack when he was only 43 years old.
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Ahmet Kaya – “Kum Gibi” (1994)
Turkish Rock
Rock music first appeared in Turkey as rock’n roll, twist and beat music. Istanbul used to be one of the most popular spots for western travellers who wanted to go to Kathmandu, Nepal. Sultanahmet was a popular place for traveller musicians to gather. They were strongly influenced by young people in Istanbul with their instruments, music, lifestyle and appearance. In addition, the Turkish government opened its doors fully to American-centred capitalist politics after World War II. American soldiers, especially the marines, brought many records, magazines and instruments to Turkey. Later, young people in Turkey would find them in bazaars and came to know American music.
In the 50s, elite urban college youth were caught up in the wave of rock’n roll and started forming rock groups. But real rock music emerged in the 1960s shortly after the legendary rock groups The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, queen, yes and Led Zeppelin became popular in Turkey. Erkin Koray was the original spirit of rock in Turkey. The first Turkish rock song “Bir Eylül Akşamı” (A September Night) was recorded by him in 1963. He also had strong influence on many musicians. Barış Manço, considered to be a rock legend, was only one of them. He attended Erkin Koray’s concert which was at Galatasaray Lycee in the late 50s. Later, Barış Manço formed a band and started his music career. He released his first record in 1962. Of course, he was not the only one. Many bands such as Apaşlar and Kardaşlar were formed during that period. At first, they performed western songs and later Turkish-language covers.
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Barış Manço – “Trip (Fairground)” (1968)
Golden Microphone Music Competition and Inter-High School Music Contest, which were organized by different newspapers, gave rise to both rock and pop music. They acted as a launch pad for several legends to enter the music scene and gain popularity. Mavi Işıklar, Siluetler, Cahit Oben, Cem Karaca, Haramiler, Erkin Koray and Moğollar were some of the competitors. After the mid-1960s the musicians began to compose Turkish songs. Psychedelic rock music was dominant during that time. Meanwhile, folk instruments and folk sound began to mix with rock music. Clearly Turkish rock music was going through its experimental period during the 60s and 70s. For example, Western-style songs were labelled as pop music or Anatolian pop, and the musicians didn’t have all the instruments to perform what they really wanted. Truly, Turkish rock music developed in 80s, became popular in 90s, and found itself in 2000s.
Following the 1970s was a period of immigration in Turkey from rural to urban areas. Independence and labour movements that started in the 60s continued throughout the next decade. In Turkey’s mercurial cities, urban intellectuals began to show more interest in Turkish folklore and traditions. Cem Karaca, Erkin Koray, Moğollar, Barış Manço, and 3 Hürel were certainly the legends of 70s, and they all tried to incorporate rock music into the traditional Turkish sound emphasizing the folk aspects of it. Consequently, the works resulted in a blend of Anatolian folk and western rock sounds. At the same time, a socialist influences came into the spotlight. Timur Selçuk and Cem Karaca identified with socialism and became a sort of pied piper of leftist mass music. “Hudey” was Cem Karaca’s first record and featured a rock’n roll- beat cover of the folk song of minstrel Pir Sultan Abdal. He also worked with Moğollar, another legendary band of the time. They released Öbür Dünya / El Çek Tabip in 1973. In 1957 the song “Tamirci Çırağı” (Apprentice Mechanic) was released and became very popular among Turkish leftists. Other examples include “İşçi Marşı” (Labourer’s March), and “Yoksulluk Kader Olamaz” (Poverty can’t be destiny), was another song which leftist masses sang together with one voice. Moğollar had a special place in rock music during the 1970s. They blended western and Turkish folk music and shaped the future of Turkish rock. In 1971, the group won the Grand Prix du Disque from the Charles Cros Academy. Prior awardees included groups such as Pink Floyd and Jimi Hendrix. Almost all the tracks on this album were composed with traditional arrangements. Barış Manço was another icon of rock music. He started his music career when he was still in high school. He had a great run with “Dağlar Dağlar” (Mountains Mountains) in 1970. He then formed Kurtalan Ekspres, the band that would accompany him until his death. He released “Baris Mancho” in 1976. The album reached the top of the charts in Romania and Morocco but this did not meet his high expectations. He released three more albums from 1977 to 1980. Onur, Haldun and Feridun Hürel were three brothers and members of the group Üç Hürel. An important aspect of Üç Hürel was the fact that they wrote their own lyrics and music. The group was a symbol of originality and creativity. They used their own drums, they produced an electro guitar-saz and used them to create their own unique sound. They reached their height in 1972 and 1974 along with “Sevenler Ağlarmış” (The lovers had been crying). Unfortunately, the brothers had financial problems, and retired from the music scene in 1976. After the mid-1970s, political turmoil and terror increased in Turkey. The music sector also slid into chaos. Erkin Koray, also called Erkin Baba (father) referring to his legendary status, was abroad. The new songs of Barış Manço were average, Dadaşlar faced arabesque and many leftist musicians left the country in order to protect themselves out of fear of persecution. Cem Karaca was the first loss. He moved to Germany because he already had suspicions of what would happen. His was denaturalised in 1983, and his exile continued till 1987. Despite this, several groups formed in the recent 70s like Hardal, Asia Minor, Whisky, Devil and Denge, kept the ball rolling during the 80s.
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Erkin Koray – “Estarabim” (1975)
Turkey kicked off the 1980s with the September 12th Military Coup, headed by General Kenan Evren. The period left behind a sense of oppression due to countless instances of prohibition, denunciations, house raids, custodies, tortures and deaths. Even the contact to the outside world was cut. The only way for to stay connected was through the TRT television channel which was under control of the junta. Even during such a time, Hardal succeed to go on with music, and they released “Nereden Nereye” (From where to where) in 1982. The album was very successful, and kept rock music going. After the military coup, Turgut Özal, best known for his liberal economic reforms, became prime minister. In 1984, he removed the ban on imports. The decision was an important milestone for Turkish rock music it gave musicians access to instruments they could only dream of during the ban. Consequently, the number of bands increased, and new genres such as heavy metal, punk, hard-core emerged on stages across the country. Additionally, a big rock music festival took place at Istanbul Open Air Theatre. One interesting fact about this festival is attendees who came with their grandmothers were granted free entrance to the event, so naturally there were many grandmothers at this concert. Another crackpot event of 1984 was that Ankara deputy of parliament lead the police to round up metal heads and punks to cut their hair! 1986 was one of the best years of rock music. Aqua released Güneşte Dolaşmak that February. The album was so greatly loved that a second edition published. Meridian released the first progressive rock album of Turkey, named “Meridian 8763”. Meanwhile, Whisky released “Babaanne” which was the first hard rock album of Turkey. In the same year, the first heavy metal band, Pentagram, was formed. In 1989, rock concerts began to take place outside in the open air. Kalamış Park, Göztepe Park and Gülhane Park were all popular spots for these concerts to take place. The masses drawn to these rock events caught the media’s eye. Initially, these rock enthusiasts were introduced to the public as some kind of “children of the devil.” Meanwhile, Deathroom was formed as a first death metal band in Bakırköy. Apart from that, there were many rock and metal concerts that took place during the year. Erkin Koray’s “Hay-Yam-Yam”, Barış Manço’s “Hal Hal”, and MFÖ’s “ The Best of MFÖ” albums were the last great rock albums of the 80’s.
Bulutsuzluk Özlemi, which worked much more along the lines of classic rock, achieved their greatest popularity with the title song of their politically-oriented album, “Uçtu Uçtu” in 1990. Along with this album, Turkish rock music also gained momentum. Asım Can Gündüz, Kronik, Akbaba, Mavi Sakal, and Kesmeşeker all released albums following Bulutsuz Özlemi. During this period, Istanbul was hosted two concerts which were enough to satisfy the masses of Turkish rockers. In 1992, Bryan Adams became the first foreigner to give a concert in Turkey. A year later, Metallica came to Istanbul, and rockers from all over gathered in Istanbul. These two concerts were milestones for Turkish rock. Their popularity and success made organizers acknowledge the existence of Turkish rock enthusiasts and therefore began to arrange more rock concerts.
After the mid-1990s, rock music truly found itself. It entered into mainstream urban culture, and rock bands became even more varied. Pentagram, the first metal band in Turkey, released three albums from 1997 to 2000. Kargo was another active group which recorded five albums between 1994 and 2000. Mor ve Ötesi was formed in 1995 and released two albums. The group also took part of an antinuclear campaign in 2000. Baba Zula was formed in 1996. They combined traditional instruments with electronic sounds in a unique blend of their own. They recorded their first album, Tabutta Rövaşata, in 1996. The album was created for a movie of the same name. They have released seven albums to date. Şebnem Ferah and Özlem Tekin were members of Volvox, a band consisting of only female members. They later split up to continue their careers independently.
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Şebnem Ferah – “Vazgeçtim Dünyadan” (1996)
Şebnem Ferah released “Kadın” in 1996 and “Artık Kısa Cümleler Kuruyorum” in 1999. Özlem Tekin performed “Kime Ne” in 1996, “Öz” in 1998 and “Laubali” in 1999. They were all popular hits for the general public. Zuğaşi Berepe was a Laz language rock band from the Black Sea region of Turkey. The group released and performed two album before leaving the music scene in 2000. Kazım Koyuncu, was the vocalist of Zuğaşi Berepe and continued his music career on his own. Sadly, he died when he was only 33 years old. He has special place in the hearts of Turks, and will never be forgotten.
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Kazım Koyuncu
Duman, which literally means smoke, is one of the best Anatolian rock bands ever. The band combines traditional folk music with modern rock and grunge. Duman consists of members Kaan Tangöze, Batuhan Mutlugil and Ari Barokas. The first album, “Eski Köprünün Altında” (Under the old bridge), was released in 1999. The album consisted of 10 songs, each one catchy and somewhat addictive. Later, they made a second effort with Belki Alışman Lazım which was released in 2002. With help from a heavy cover of the Sezen Aksu classic “Her Şeyi Yak”, the album was hit, and Duman became well-known all over Turkey. “Seni Kendime Sakladım”, “En Güzel Günüm Gecem”, “Duman 1-2”, “Canlı” and “Darmaduman” are other popular albums of Duman.